gender wage gap conflict theory

62, 367380. Siegel, N. A., Stocker, A., and Warnholz, S. (2009). (2009). Gender Differences in Social Interaction, 24. New York, NY: Elsevier Scientific. Post-Commun. (28, Conley). As these findings were replicated with two independent surveys, it is likely that these are reliable results. The vignettes of the student sample and population sample 1 were additionally presented in random order for each respondent. doi: 10.1177/0003122416673598, Finke, C., Dumpert, F., and Beck, M. (2017). Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. doi: 10.1177/0001699308090039, Jasso, G., and Rossi, P. H. (1977). According to research, women earn only 76% of what men are paid for doing the same task, Women are generally considered as the weak gender and are supposed to be submissive to their, husbands. Is Gender Socially Constructed? Sociol. Table 9. KEY POINTS Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. WebThe Gender Conflict theory is essentially Marxist in nature, where the male figures are positioned at the upper echelon and the female figures are at the lower part. The empirical analyses are based on three factorial survey studies that consist of fictitious full-time employees with varying characteristics, including gender. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.013. One must bear in mind that students are not only embedded in the structural context university but are also affected by socially shared attitudes toward gender in other contexts of social life. 26, 132150. The just gender pay gap in Germany revisited: The male breadwinner model and regional differences in gender-specific role ascriptions. The results are presented in Table 8. WebThe gender wage gap is the difference in men and womens annual salaries and can be found in every kind of job at all times. Model 1 includes the structural variables of average gross earnings and gender pay gap per federal state. Rev. Moreover, the respondents could skip vignettes if they did not want to answer. Restricting the results presented in Tables 6, 7 to full-time employees yields similar results (as can also be seen in Models 1 and 4 of Table 8). . While the existence of an actual gender pay gap is robustly documented for many countries, previous studies investigating the gender gap in justice evaluations of the earnings of men and women have yielded mixed findings. In population sample 2, a constant number of dimensions (10) and vignettes (24) was presented. Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Friedhoff, S. (2015). Social structure and the paradox of the contented female worker: how occupational gender segregation biases justice perceptions of wages. If this is true, the difference between students and general populations reported in previous studies should still be detectable with more recent data, and the differences should be generalizable to other subpopulations that are prone to higher or lower gender inequality. The independent variables are the five dimensions of gender (1 = male), age, education (dummy coded as follows: ref = without vocational degree; 1 = vocational degree; and 2 = university degree), occupation, and gross earnings. Due to a life course perspective, gender differences in income are analyzed over a period of 24 years. The results show that male and female students did not produce a just gender pay gap with their evaluations. This paper investigates the determinants of the gender pay gap among doctoral graduates in Germany. Factorial Survey Experiments, Vol. To link the justice evaluation process to the structural context, a closer examination of the referential structure of comparisons in justice judgments is in order. 4. Figure 1 shows the long-run trends in the gender pay gap over the 1955-2014 period based on two doi: 10.1177/1536867X0700700207. We see this take place in many area, however we witness it more in the work place., The theoretical perspective that explains the issue of gender wage gap inequality is the conflict theory. 84, 541564. This is a mandatory requirement to investigate gender bias introduced by the respondents. College Station, TX: Stata Press. Res. Nevertheless, many high-positioned, wealthy and powerful men can and are willing to help women in coping and improving this situation. Using factorial surveys to study justice perceptions: five methodological problems of attitudinal justice research. The first model only considers respondents under the age of thirty; the second model restricts the analysis sample to respondents with a higher secondary school degree. All three of these theories have different perspectives on why gender exists. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. The findings suggest that municipalities with women mayors and larger proportions of women on the city council have smaller gender wage gaps in the municipal executive bureaucracy than those with men mayors and few women councilors. You can help correct errors and omissions. Reward-relevant characteristics are those that entitle someone to receive a certain amount of rewards. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. The second model includes the interaction term between the vignette person's gender and the gender pay gap in the federal state. The factorial survey method and application for studying attitudes and behavior. Table 1 shows the dimensions and levels used for the analyses. The difference is that in the previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1999), male and female students showed a tendency to favor female recipients. The gender pay gap refers to the average difference in mens and womens earnings, and is typically adjusted for hours worked. It is crucial to obtain a stable referential structure in which the comparisons are embedded. Reward expectations are formed based on status characteristics and a referential structure. This possibility was introduced in the description of the vignette task immediately before the first vignette. Although only a share of respondents participate in the labor market, these status differences are shared beliefs in wide parts of society because they have spread throughout the population. The left extreme point (5) was labeled unjustly low, the midpoint (0) was labeled just and the right extreme point (+5) was labeled unjustly high. The midpoint was coded as zero, the left segment as negative numbers, and the right segment as positive numbers. Non-reflexive judgments, on the other hand, are not affected by conflicts of justice perceptions and individuals' own interests because people judge rewards by which they are not affected (especially when people evaluate fictitious others, as is the case in factorial survey studies). Table 6. Moreover, all coefficients are similar in both samples, even though the rating task was different, which indicates stable results. Evaluations differ between male and female students (p = 0.026) but do not differ in population sample 1 (p = 0.406) and population sample 2 (p = 0.360). Ducharme, J. Please provide multiple citations in your sources. Questions surrounding distributive justice are part of the research program of the empirical sociological justice literature (Jasso et al., 2016; Liebig and Sauer, 2016) that has been developed over the last 50 years and now has a formalized core mapping the evaluation process. Before a person can define their standpoint on a topic, he or she must first consider if the issues exist., Women have long been oppressed in society, and this oppression has translated into segregation in the workforce for a long time. HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Conflicttheoryasserts that social problems occur whendominant. Therefore, their approach is normative in that it prescribes changes to the power structure, advocating a balance of power between genders. Sauer, C. (2014b). Jasso on distributive justice. Assessing the gender gap in just earnings and its underlying mechanisms. doi: 10.3200/JOEB.84.6.339-349, Sotan, K. E. (1981). Moreover, student samples and general samples do not only differ by the structural conditions in which respondents are embedded. WebThis research report explores the gender pay gap, which is defined as the difference between the average hourly pay of men and women. In the student sample and population sample 1, the number of dimensions (5, 8, and 12 dimensions) and the number of vignettes presented (10, 20, or 30 vignettes for each respondent) were varied in a between-subjects design4. The estimates of the regression models for the different respondent samples are presented in Table 6. Verdienste 2009: Vollzeitkrfte verdienten durchschnittlich 41200 Euro. Work Occupat. It therefore provides a continuation of the research initiated by Jasso and Webster (1997, 1999) with new empirical evidence. Ganzeboom, H. B. G., and Treiman, D. J. The analysis sample consists of 952 respondents. However, following the work of Berger et al. Double standards for competence: theory and research. Figure 2. On the justice of earnings: a new specification of the justice evaluation function. Psychol. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. First, the focus is on the effect of the gender of the vignette person on the justice evaluations for each sample. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. The model in Equation (4) specifies that the justice evaluation J of vignette v of the i-th respondent is based on the given dimensions of each vignette. The factorial survey (Auspurg and Hinz, 2014) is a method that permits the detection of gender biases [and more generally sensitive topics, Auspurg et al. The income students obtain for their monthly expenses is on average equal for female and male students (Isserstedt et al., 2010). The results are very similar to those for the first population sample and are in line with Hypothesis 2. Res. Occupation was transformed into a metric scale using the Standard International Occupational Prestige Scale (SIOPS; Ganzeboom and Treiman, 1996). With these pieces of information, it was possible to find those interviews that did not fulfill the requirements for the analysis: interviews were excluded from the analysis sample if respondents did not perform the task on their own but with the help of others. As a limitation, gender equality may not apply to students in other subjects, as there could be differences that correlate with gender. Early formulations of justice evaluation processes identified comparisons as the key mechanism how actors assess the justice or injustice of their rewards. Health Econ. The theory of double standards focuses on these interactions between job-related characteristics, such as competence and performance, and gender (Foschi, 2000); empirical research by Jasso and Webster (1999) shows that these double standards exist in justice evaluations. To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. In all Western countries, levels of pay between men and women are only slowly becoming closer (Blau and Kahn, 2003, 2006). While certaingender rolesmay have been appropriate in ahunter-gatherersociety, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power andstatus. The observers produce in this case no just gender pay gap. doi: 10.1006/ssre.1996.0010, Gatskova, K. (2013). Figure 2 shows the distributions of justice evaluations by dataset. Lohngerechtigkeit und Geschlechterdiskriminierung. Theory 22, 432444. Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. WebSince women are starkly overrepresented in low paid work, it would usually benefit women more dramatically. (2019, April 10). Further details on the methodical setup of the factorial survey can be found in Sauer et al. It would be not explainable enough for women to reject such help. The goal was to explain the mixed results reported in previous studies on the just gender pay gap in non-reflexive justice evaluations (Jasso and Webster, 1997, 1999) by using predictions of sociological justice theories (Berger et al., 1972; Jasso, 1978, 1980; Jasso and Webster, 1997). J is a function of the actual earnings (A) and the characteristics being evaluated as relevant for the assessment of the just reward. Edited by Anita Badejo and Marc Georges. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions by sample. The survey was conducted by a research institution with professional interviewers. (1972), judgements based on comparisons between two individuals are not justice evaluations (e.g., both individuals could be underpaid). 15 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi-gdp-entgelt-2019-06-11-01.pdf, https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2691510, https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen, Germany. WebAccording to the Institute for Womens Policy Research (IWPR) analysis of the gender wage gap by occupation, despite progress since the 1970s, the median wage for women employed full time in 2010 was only 81% male full time worker, a gap of 19%. This procedure ensures that potential method effects such as learning and fatigue (Sauer et al., 2011) are uncorrelated with substantive contents of the vignettes. Soc. 2, Chap. Jasso and Wegener (1997) specify that the just reward depends on reward-relevant factors x, their weights and their combination. The Conflict Perspective by Boundless, Boundless Sociology, http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/index.html is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. proletariat the working class or lower class, dominant group a sociological category that holds the majority of authority and power over other social groups. Given the assumption that the process can be defined as a gender bias in the referential structure, it is likely that one will find gender gaps in just earnings in evaluators judgments who are themselves embedded in gender-unequal structures, while it is likely that people who experience less gender inequality do not have these biased structures. A further note is that in all three datasets, there were similar effects for the other dimensions, indicating consensus regarding expected rewards for inputs and abilities such as education, occupation, and age. 6. A. M., Kaschner, T., and Brodbeck, F. C. (2018). Status Characteristics and Social Interaction: An Expectation States Approach. WebA recent review of research on the gender wage gap notes that womens labor force participation rates in the U.S. have grown more slowly than those in northwestern European countries in recent years, probably as a result of differences in The rewards of the generalized other represent the typical earnings of similar people, while the normative evaluation of whether earnings are too high or too low is located in the comparison between the actual outcomes and the referential outcomes. The analysis sample consists of 1,734 respondents. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. The status value is not an intrinsic feature of a characteristic (in this case, gender) but attached to the characteristic by generally shared beliefs. Male and female observers assigned higher just earnings to male recipients. Table 3. 16, 827840. In other words, respondents produce with their ratings a just gender pay gap favoring men, as found by Jasso and Webster (1997). Due to a life course perspective, gender differences in income are analyzed over a period of 24 years. The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. doi: 10.1177/0730888417753048, Whitmeyer, J. M. (2004). The second column of Table 5 shows the pay gaps by federal state. No matter where a man is in the workplace, they are always ranked one step higher than women. 629, 31 doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2399404, Sauer, C., and Valet, P. (2013). Rev. Some studies report a just gender pay gap favoring men; others do not find this gap. Median monthly earnings and pay gaps by federal state in 2009. doi: 10.1515/zfsoz-2009-0501, Shepelak, N. J., and Alwin, D. F. (1986). Germany, for example, recently introduced a national minimum wage to tackle its stubborn gender wage gap of 22.4 per cent. The gap exists as a universal between the genders, and it exists within the vast majority of occupations. But this wasnt due to women earning more. In all surveys, the respondents had the opportunity to change their judgments of earlier vignettes when they compared them to later vignettes and had to adjust the ratings. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. However, with the current formulation of the workplace policies and regulation, both the, gender is being paid based on the ability and merit to deliver and perform (. The idea is that there is nothing wrong associated with accepting men to give empowerment to women and moreover women need men as much as women need another women., In this environment, the most that women could do was to raise their sons to be better than their fathers, but because of the power that they held in society, men were able and willing to perpetuate these roles and conventions since they were so beneficial to them. It is only through the breaking of these gender roles and conventions - from both men being willing to defer to the wills of women and women having the strength of deviate from their given roles and demanding better treatment, that these toxic definitions of masculinity and femininity can be, Once women began entering the working world an issue arose from the gender based wages. If there is going to be any real change in society for gender wage, men needs to fight for the women as well and they need to fight for them. Die wirtschaftliche und soziale Lage der Studierenden in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2009. Although laws were passed in the United States to end the gender wage gap, women still suffer the unfair payment; therefore, the countrys governments needs to enforce or implement more laws to end the gap. 26, 2142. A. Additionally, both female and male respondents in the population samples are assumed to have similar status beliefs about gender. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. Observers produced higher gaps in their ratings if they lived in federal states with a high actual gender pay gap. The results show that the gender pay gap that observers experience influences their evaluations regarding the recipient's gender. It is likely that they also bias the justice judgements of observers, especially if the observers hold traditional norms regarding responsibilities in the household and family (e.g., male-breadwinner model; see, Lang and Gro, 2020). Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Methods 5, 89102. In Germany, the gender differences in earnings have remained persistently high over the last decade (Hobler and Pfahl, 2019) in comparison to other European countries. The findings indicate that actual inequalities between men and women influence the gender bias in justice evaluations. According to the mixed results of prior studies, university students who experience more gender equality will more likely activate a referential structure that does not produce gender bias, while members of the general population are more likely to experience gender inequalities over their life courses and reproduce them in their evaluations. Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. Am. (1977). Jasso, G. (2007). Other factorial survey studies also found a gender gap in ratings (Jasso and Rossi, 1977; Alves and Rossi, 1978; Shepelak and Alwin, 1986; Jann, 2008; Adriaans et al., 2020). Its Elementary Forms. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. WebAccording to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. WebThe gender wage gap is unadjusted and is defines as the difference between median earning of men and women relative to median earnings of men.

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