consequences of the night of the long knives

The Night of the Long Knives: the bloody purge that secured Hitler's power. Rhm wanted to have his troops incorporated into the new Wehrmacht that was being prepared to take the place of the Reichswehr, despite the fact that the conservative-minded generals were resolutely opposed to any such contamination of the army by the SA. This act legalised removing anyone of non-Ayran descent from the civil service. [24] Before Hitler left, and at the request of Presidential State Secretary Otto Meiner, Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath ordered the German Ambassador to Italy Ulrich von Hassell without Hitler's knowledge to ask Mussolini to tell Hitler that the SA was blackening Germany's good name. ", Night of the Long Knives (disambiguation), The History Place Triumph of Hitler Night of the Long Knives, German Culture The Third Reich Consolidation of Power, The German Embassy in the United States The Era of National Socialism, National Political Institutes of Education, National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), National Socialist German Doctors' League, National Socialist League for Physical Exercise (NSRL), Bulgarian National Socialist Workers Party, German National Socialist Workers' Party (Czechoslovakia), Finnish National Socialist Labor Organisation, German National Movement in Liechtenstein, National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands, National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, Nationalist Liberation Alliance (Argentina), South African Gentile National Socialist Movement, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Night_of_the_Long_Knives&oldid=1148917121, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2022, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Operation Hummingbird, Rhm Putsch (by the Nazis), The Blood Purge. A combat veteran of World War I, Rhm had recently boasted that he would execute 12 men in retaliation for the killing of any stormtrooper. How did the Night of the Long Knives help to create a dictatorship out of a democracy? One of the men Gring recruited to assist him was Willi Lehmann, a Gestapo official and NKVD spy. The resources all include suggested teaching strategies, retrieval practice, differentiated materials and come in PowerPoint format if there is a wish to adapt and change. Hess, present among the assembled, even volunteered to shoot the "traitors". Hitler had become a chancellor in 1933 henceforth he had the power to establish his power. They had placed many in the first Hitler remained indecisive and uncertain about just what precisely he wanted to do when he left for Venice to meet Benito Mussolini on 15 June. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Given that the purge claimed the lives of so many prominent Germans, it could hardly be kept secret. [63] Since Schleicher was a good friend of the French Ambassador Andr Franois-Poncet, and because of his reputation for intrigue, the claim that Schleicher was working for France had enough surface plausibility for most Germans to accept it. To a lesser extent, the Sturmabteilung (SA), a Nazi paramilitary organization, remained somewhat autonomous within the party. Terror and intimidation became one of the main ways that the Nazis sought to control or suppress their opposition, and Germans in general. Omissions? At first, its architects seemed split on how to handle the event. Tes paid licenceHow can I reuse this? On 1 July, at Hitler's behest, Theodor Eicke, Commandant of the Dachau concentration camp, and his SS adjutant Michael Lippert visited Rhm. On 1 April 1933, the Nazi Party led a nationwide boycott of Jewish-owned businesses across Germany. Historian Gavin Mortimer explains how Hitler nearly came unstuck as early as 1934 - and that the bloody purge that followed was a warning of horrors to come . The Night of the Long Knives is regarded as an important political episode that had far-reaching consequences, not only in Nazi Germany but across the world. "[65] Another rare exception was Field Marshal August von Mackensen, who spoke about the murders of Schleicher and Bredow at the annual General Staff Society meeting in February 1935 after they had been rehabilitated by Hitler in early January 1935. However, this power was limited, as the Nazis were just one party in a three party Goering, Himmler, and Heydrich, Hitler's new head of internal security for the SS, got together and drew up a list of opponents to Hitler's new Government, while Goebbels publicly accused Ernst Rhm of planning a takeover or 'Putsch'. The camps were brutal and had extremely unsanitary conditions. You must first remember and recite all the points made earlier in the circle then add your own point. [84], The Night of the Long Knives represented a triumph for Hitler, and a turning point for the German government. But the Night of the Long Knives they kill over 100 people, not just Rhm and his closest associate, but also others who are on a hit list that Hitler, Gring, and Himmler and others put together. [45][41] As Himmler's adjutant Karl Wolff later explained, friendship and personal loyalty were not allowed to stand in the way: Among others, a charming fellow [named] Karl von Spreti, Rhm's personal adjutant. [28] Hitler had hesitated for months in moving against Rhm, in part due to Rhm's visibility as the leader of a national militia with millions of members. [15] In January 1934, Rhm presented Blomberg with a memorandum demanding that the SA replace the regular army as the nation's ground forces, and that the Reichswehr become a training adjunct to the SA.[16]. In Berlin, on Gring's personal orders, an armed SS unit stormed the Vice-Chancellery. It is otherwise known as coordination or Nazification. Chancellor Adolf Hitler, urged on by Hermann Gring and Heinrich Himmler, ordered a series of political extrajudicial executions . Hitler announced to those present that the SA would act as an auxiliary to the Reichswehr, not the other way around. To take control of cultural policy, the Nazis appointed Joseph Goebbels as Minister for Public Engagement and Propaganda on the 13 March 1933. [78], The term "long knives" as a metonym for treachery and violence had been used to describe the Treason of the Long Knives since this incident was recorded in the 9th century Historia Brittonum. The Liberals' future leader, Jeremy Thorpe, mocked Macmillan by observing . Thus from June 30 to July 2, 1934, which the chancellor later titled the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler purged any and all opposition in his way to a dictatorship. It's helped us to become more accustomed to acts of grim self-interested political butchery; but for those witnessing these events as they happened, they were simply unprecedented. [79] This story would be popularized across western Europe in the 12th century as part of the History of the Britons by Geoffrey of Monmouth, which introduced many of the Arthurian legends to Germany.[80][81]. For new Germany unit - 1890-1945. On 17 June 1934, conservative demands for Hitler to act came to a head when Vice-Chancellor Franz von Papen, confidant of the ailing Hindenburg, gave a speech at Marburg University warning of the threat of a "second revolution. Ernst Rhm was murdered in the event known as the Rhm Putsch, or the Night of Long Knives. leaders knew consequences of questioning Hitler - role of SA was reduced - membership dropped from 2.9 million to 1.6 million. The first concentration camp, Dachau, opened in a broken-down munitions factory on the 20 March 1933, imprisoning primarily political prisoners. You gave these parties 14 years to ruin Germany! While many officers were impressed by Hitler's promises of an expanded army, a return to conscription, and a more aggressive foreign policy, the army continued to guard its traditions of independence during the early years of the Nazi regime. [48] Eicke and Lippert then shot Rhm, killing him. [69] The memo asked that Hindenburg instead create a directorate to rule Germany, comprising the Chancellor (who was not named), General Werner von Fritsch as Vice-Chancellor, Hammerstein as Minister of Defense, the Minister for National Economy (also unnamed), and Rudolf Nadolny as Foreign Minister. Hitler told the gathered officials, "The stream of revolution has been undammed, but it must be channelled into the secure bed of evolution. The Night of Long Knives was the purge of the SA leadership and other political opponents from the 30 June 1934 to the 2 July 1934. On 27 February 1933, as the campaign moved into its final, frantic days, theReichstag, the German Parliament building, was set on fire and burnt down. This photograph was taken the same day, showing the Reichstag still burning. First was his old comrade Ernst Rhm, chief of staff of the SA (Sturmabteilung; German: Assault Division), or Brownshirts. The Nazi adoption of the phrase for an upcoming violent event was well known even to the foreign press, with the 2 August 1932 issue of The Times reporting that: Prominent Nazi leaders have played upon the imaginations of their followers..with such phrases as the night of the long knives and a vengeance for every Nazi killed.[79]. History portrays the infamous 'Night of the Long Knives' as a textbook political disaster, but as a BBC documentary shows on the 50th anniversary, it could have been so different. No one in the SA spoke more loudly for "a continuation of the German revolution" (as one prominent stormtrooper, Edmund Heines, put it) than Rhm himself. [18], Finally, in early 1934, the growing rift between Rhm and Hitler over the role of the SA in the Nazi state led former chancellor General Kurt von Schleicher to start playing politics again. The SA traced its dramatic rise in numbers in part to the onset of the Great Depression, when many German citizens lost both their jobs and their faith in traditional institutions. In Rhm's view, President Hindenburg's appointment of Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933 had brought the Nazi Party to power, but had left unfulfilled the party's larger goals. While Nazism was not exclusively or even primarily a working-class phenomenon, the SA fulfilled the yearning of many unemployed workers for class solidarity and nationalist fervour. It established Hitler as "the supreme leader of the German people", as he put it in his 13 July speech to the Reichstag. How seriously Hitler took the socialist character of National Socialism was to remain one of the main causes of disagreement and division within the Nazi party up to the summer of 1934. In conclusion, this lesson plan on Night of the Long Knives Rohm Source Investigation, provides an in-depth examination of one of the most controversial events in modern history. The Nazis had the support of the DNVP, and had banned the communist party, the KPD, from attending. However, it did so under the guise of legality, and protecting the German people and their democracy. . SS men stormed the hotel, and Hitler personally placed Rhm and other high-ranking SA leaders under arrest. "A very calm and easy going mailman," the diarist Victor Klemperer wrote, "who is not at all National Socialist, said, 'Well, he simply sentenced them.'" It will first explore this topic in chronological order, from the Reichstag Fire through to the death of President Hindenburg, and then explore it thematically in the last section. Leading members of the leftist-leaning Strasserist faction of the Nazi Party, including its leader Gregor Strasser, were also killed, as were establishment conservatives and anti-Nazis, such as former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and Bavarian politician Gustav Ritter von Kahr, who had helped suppress Hitler's Munich Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. He then told Hitler that Hindenburg was close to declaring martial law and turning the government over to the Reichswehr if Hitler did not take immediate steps against Rhm and his brownshirts. [66], Rumours about the Night of the Long Knives rapidly spread. Paul von Hindenburg was still alive and in office and, if he wished, could have stopped all of Hitlers plans by handing power over to the Reichswehr. Gring's personal police battalion also took part in the killings. Chancellor Adolf Hitler, urged on by Hermann Gring and Heinrich Himmler, ordered a series of political extrajudicial executions intended to consolidate his power and alleviate the concerns of the German military about the role of Ernst Rhm and the Sturmabteilung (SA), the Nazis' paramilitary organization, known colloquially as "Brownshirts". , was then given the choice of suicide or murder. The primary instruments of Hitler's action, which carried out most of the killings, were the Schutzstaffel (SS) paramilitary force under Himmler and its Security Service (SD), and Gestapo (secret police) under Reinhard Heydrich. Hitler shouted at Schneidhuber and accused him of treachery. The SA evolved out of the remnants of the Freikorps movement of the post-World War I years. The tension between the SA and the Nazi leadership grew. Fearing that the paramilitary SA had become too powerful, Hitler ordered his elite SS guards to murder the organization's leaders, including Ernst Rhm. Whilst the purge focused on the SA, the Nazis also used the event to eliminate other political opponents, such as the former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher. As chancellor, Hitler did not command the army, which remained under the formal leadership of Hindenburg, a highly respected veteran field marshal. Its membership plummeted from 2.9 million in August 1934 to 1.2 million in April 1938. On 19 April 1943, the beginning of the liquidation of the Warsaw ghetto was met with organised armed resistance by its residents. By June 1934 this had grown to over 3,000,000 members. While all of these men were veterans of the Nazi movement, only Rhm continued to demonstrate his independence from, rather than his loyalty to, Adolf Hitler. The army almost unanimously applauded the Night of the Long Knives, even though the generals Kurt von Schleicher and Ferdinand von Bredow were among the victims. Purge in Nazi Germany from 30 June to 2 July 1934, Papen, nonetheless, remained in his position although people quite close to him were murdered, including, "At least eighty-five people are known to have been summarily killed without any formal legal proceedings being taken against them. He lifted his arm in the Nazi salute and called out "Heil Hitler, I love Germany. [69], Hindenburg never responded to the memo, and it remains unclear whether he even saw it, as Otto Meiner, who decided that his future was aligned with the Nazis, may not have passed it along. The elections were neither free or fair. The Nazis used the SA and the newly expanded SS to harass and imprison any potential opponents of the Nazi Party. Sixty years ago today, Harold Macmillan carried out a cabinet reshuffle which became known as the 'Night of the Long Knives'. [29], In preparation for the purge, both Himmler and Heydrich assembled a dossier of manufactured evidence to suggest that Rhm had been paid 12 million (EUR 29.1million in 2023) by France to overthrow Hitler. The Night of the Long Knives was extremely significant in the establishment of the Nazi dictatorship and ultimately Hitler's power. People could be imprisoned for any or no reason. It targeted potential threats to Hitler's power, particularly within the NSDAP's fast-growing and politically vocal paramilitary wing, the Sturmabteilung or SA. The History Learning Site, 9 Mar 2015. ", "The names of eighty-five victims [exist], only fifty of them SA men. The SA also ran a violent campaign of terror against any and all opponents of the Nazi regime. There were 4 main reasons why the Night of the Long Knives occurred: Ernst Rhm had become too powerful with 3 million SA loyal to him. [3] It established Hitler as the supreme administrator of justice of the German people, as he put it in his 13 July speech to the Reichstag. Fearing that the paramilitary SA had become too powerful, Hitler ordered his elite SS guards to murder the organization's leaders, including Ernst Rhm. The murders of SA leaders were also intended to improve the image of the Hitler government with a German public that was increasingly critical of thuggish SA tactics. [21] Brning fled to the Netherlands while Schleicher dismissed the tip-off as a bad practical joke. The Night of Long Knives occurred on June 30, 1934. This topic will explore how the Nazis managed to eliminate their opposition and Answer (1 of 5): if you were Ernst Rohm, or former conniving Chancellor Gen von Schleicher or his wife, the consequences were terminal. Although many Germans approached the official news of the events as described by Joseph Goebbels with a great deal of scepticism, many others took the regime at its word, and believed that Hitler had saved Germany from a descent into chaos. Gestapo officers attached to the SS unit shot Papen's secretary Herbert von Bose without bothering to arrest him first. Once the Enabling Law was in place, the Nazis could bypass the Reichstag and rule by decree seemingly creating laws that stabilised Germany and got rid of its internal enemies. Source starter, video introducing the night of the long knives, source analysis assessing causes and consequences of the night of the long knives, describe 4 mark question built in and overall judgement building on the learning sequence of the most significant reason Hitler was able to establish a dictatorship. 9. The loyalty of the SS men would prove useful to both when Hitler finally chose to move against Rhm and the SA. However, most accounts argue that as many as 1,000 deaths occurred during the Night of the Long Knives. Whilst the pseudo-legal measures were one factor that helped the Nazis to consolidate power, another was terror and intimidation. Until then, Lippert had been one of the few executioners of the purge to evade trial. [21] By the beginning of June everything was set and all that was needed was permission from Hitler. Over the next two months, they launched themselves into an intense election campaign. Hitler's desire to consolidate his power and settle old scores, Desire of Ernst Rhm and the SA to continue "the National Socialist revolution" versus Hitler's need for relative social stability so that the economy could be refocused to rearmament and the German people acclimated to the need for expansion and war, Hitler's need to bring the Reichswehr under his control, Significant reduction in the regime's opposition, Strengthening of relationship between Hitler and the military. Rhm demurred, telling them, "If I am to be killed, let Adolf do it himself. Hitler feared that the SA and Ernst Rhm, their leader, were a potential threat to his leadership. The day after the Reichstag fire, the 28 February 1933, Hindenburg signed a decree giving Hitler emergency powers. Finally, Hitler used the purge to attack or eliminate German critics of his new regime, especially those loyal to Vice-Chancellor Franz von Papen, as well as to settle scores with old enemies.[a]. As a result, a political struggle within the party grew, with those closest to Hitler, including Prussian premier Hermann Gring, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, Reichsfhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler, and Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess, positioning themselves against Rhm. [21] At the end of May, Brning and Schleicher, two former chancellors, received warnings from friends in the Reichswehr that their lives were in danger and they should leave Germany at once. A firefighter in the burnt out ruins of the Reichstag building. As such the Nazis justified this measure as implementing necessary security measures, rather than revealing their true motive to remove opposition. [i] Rhm, as one of the earliest members of the Nazi Party, had participated in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt by Hitler to seize power by force in 1923. Home Explore. The law needed two thirds of the Reichstag to vote for it to pass. As such, the Nazis consolidation of power relied on maintaining the illusion of a stable democracy. The Nazis also took several more steps to reduce their political opposition legally. Rhm was given the nickname "The Machine Gun King of Bavaria" in the early 1920s, since he was responsible for storing and issuing illegal machine guns to the Bavarian Freikorps units. The Third Reich was henceforth a totalitarian structure with one man as head of state, commander in chief, and leader of the only political party. The Foreign Office even complained of instances where brownshirts manhandled foreign diplomats. This event reputedly occurred during the fifth century Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, when Vortigern and the British leaders were invited to discuss peace and the Saxon leader Hengist commanded his men to draw their Seax (the infamous long knives) and massacre the unarmed Britons. The day after the fire, Hindenburg signed the Emergency Decree for the Protection of the German People. Following the Enabling Law, much of this harassment and imprisonment was legal. In British politics, the " Night of the Long Knives " was a major Cabinet reshuffle that took place on 13 July 1962. Despite some initial efforts by local prosecutors to take legal action against those who carried out the murders, which the regime rapidly quashed, it appeared that no law would constrain Hitler in his use of power. [35] Papen was unceremoniously arrested at the Vice-Chancellery, despite his insistent protests that he could not be arrested in his position as Vice-Chancellor. Originally designed and developed by the London Jewish Cultural Centre. Second, German Pres. [38] Joseph Goebbels, who had been with Hitler at Bad Wiessee, set the final phase of the plan in motion. In response to conservative pressure to constrain Rhm, Hitler left for Neudeck to meet with Hindenburg. Also killed that night were hundreds of other perceived . Over 150 people were murdered and hundreds more were arrested. Other sets by this creator. SA violence in Prussia gravely concerned Gring. [7] Complaints of "overbearing and loutish" behaviour by stormtroopers became common by the middle of 1933. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent four army divisions up the Brenner Pass and to the Carinthian frontier, and the Italian press vehemently denounced German imperialism and bad faith. The consolidation of power that had begun barely a month before with the purge of Rhm and the SA was complete. Both Kurt von Schleicher, Hitler's predecessor as Chancellor, and his wife were murdered at their home. The Night of the Long Knives was the least important factor, as it did no help much towards Hitler's consolidation of power. On 25 April 1933, the Law Against Overcrowding in Schools and Universities was issued, restricting the number of Jewish students. On 19 August 1934, the German people were asked to vote on whether or not they approved of the merging of the two offices and Hitlers new role as Fhrer. 2 Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews, 1933-1945 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975), 82. Hitler ordered him, as one prominent historian described it, to put an end to "homosexuality, debauchery, drunkenness, and high living" in the SA. Others killed included Gregor Strasser, a former Nazi who had angered Hitler by resigning from the party in 1932, and Gustav Ritter von Kahr, the former Bavarian state commissioner who had helped crush the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. Only the SPD opposed it. Rhm, however, wanted to eliminate the generalship of the Prussian aristocracy altogether, using the SA to become the core of a new German military. Updates? The Party had generally been aligned with the Social Democrats and Catholic Church during the rise of Nazism, being critical of Nazi ideology, but voting nonetheless for the Enabling Act of 1933 which granted Hitler dictatorial authority. The strike, which will end just before midnight, comes after a High Court . [57][58], A special fund administered by SS General Franz Breithaupt was set up for the relatives of the murdered, from which they were cared for at the expense of the state. [5] In June 1932, one of the worst months of political violence, there were more than 400 street battles, resulting in 82 deaths. Goebbels soon radicalised each of these areas, ensuring that they advocated Nazi ideas. With the army limited by the Treaty of Versailles to one hundred thousand soldiers, its leaders watched anxiously as membership in the SA surpassed three million men by the beginning of 1934. Wiskemann, Elizabeth, "The Night of the Long Knives", This page was last edited on 9 April 2023, at 02:08. "[74], Hitler named Viktor Lutze to replace Rhm as head of the SA. Excellency, save Germany for the fourth time! 15 Apr 2023. In August 1932 there were approximately 445,000 members of the SA. approved a bill legalising the purge as emergency defence measures. President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor on 30 January 1933. [63] During a meeting with Polish Ambassador Jzef Lipski on 22 May 1935, Hitler told Lipski that Schleicher was "rightfully murdered, if only because he had sought to maintain the Rapallo Treaty. , who had previously been a separate organisation, now swore a personal allegiance to Hitler. Also killed that night were hundreds of other perceived opponents of Hitler. This night of brutal murder and elimination of the Sturm Abteilung (SA) gave Hitler the support of the army, which he need for both the creation of a totalitarian state and his future foreign policy and also relieved the pressures on Hitler. Whilst Gleichschaltung aimed to reach every aspect of rule in Germany, this was not always possible. It was during this speech that Hitler gave the purge its name: Night of the Long Knives (a phrase from a popular Nazi song). Many of the prisoners were tortured and abused. [68] Hammerstein, who was a close friend of Schleicher, had been much offended at Schleicher's funeral when the SS refused to allow him to attend the service and confiscated the wreaths that the mourners had brought. They were often given a free rein on their activities and were violent and difficult to control. This would allow them to rule unopposed and unhindered by coalition governments. The Night of Long Knives, also known as the Rhm Putsch, was the purge of the SA leadership and other political opponents from 30 June 1934 to 2 July 1934. Prisons soon became stretched for space. On 25 June, General Werner von Fritsch placed the Reichswehr on the highest level of alert. Following Hitlers appointment as chancellor the Nazis were finally in a position of power. : Why did Hitler order the massacre of hundreds of Nazis. [l] Luise Solmitz, a Hamburg schoolteacher, echoed the sentiments of many Germans when she cited Hitler's "personal courage, decisiveness and effectiveness" in her private diary. The Bill passed by 444 votes for to 94 against on the 24 March 1933. "Rhm was given the opportunity to draw the consequences of his treacherous behaviour," said Hitler in . This resource hasn't been reviewed yet. [45] Then, on 13 July 1934,[52] Hitler justified the purge in a nationally broadcast speech to the Reichstag: If anyone reproaches me and asks why I did not resort to the regular courts of justice, then all I can say is this. Hitler's task would not be simple, however, as the SA made up a large part of Nazism's most devoted followers. Dachau The 'Night of the Long Knives' is a name given to an internal purge within the National Socialist movement in mid-1934. The Reichstag, the German lower house of parliament, was set on fire on the 27 February 1933. The Nazis consolidation of power can be grouped into three main themes: pseudo-legality, terror and intimidation and pseudo-moderation. Gring alone had over a thousand people arrested. Gring instructed police stations to burn "all documents concerning the action of the past two days". ", Coincidentally, Hitler had been incarcerated at. 464 Words. Hitler announced that he would occupy this new role. The destiny of our country is at stake. Germany feared revolution. The Night of the Long Knives L.O. [41], The regime did not limit itself to a purge of the SA. 89.93% voted in favour of Hitler. [70] It is noteworthy that even those officers who were most offended by the killings, like Hammerstein and Mackensen, did not blame the purge on Hitler, whom they wanted to see continue as Chancellor; they at most wanted a reorganization of the Cabinet to remove some of Hitler's more radical followers. The Night of the Long Knives was "an act of carnage" which had come out of the blue. Moreover, it was not just the Reichswehr that viewed the SA as a threat. This new law gave Hitler the power to rule by decree rather than passing laws through the Reichstag and the president. Just two months later, on 14 July 1933 the Nazis used the Enabling Act to ban all political parties except the Nazi Party. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. On 13 July 1934 the Reichstag Lippert was convicted and sentenced to 18 months in prison.[50]. The Nazis secured 43.9% of the vote, an improvement of almost 10% on the previous Novembers election. [64] One retired captain, Erwin Planck, seemed to realize this: "If you look on without lifting a finger", he said to his friend, General Werner von Fritsch, "you will meet the same fate sooner or later. Although Hitler ordered him released days later, Papen no longer dared to criticize the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador.[43]. Some of those executed by Hitler were once considered close allies and friends.

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